🪁 Stuff Every Sport Pilot Should Know: Training Guide

The path from first lesson to certificate

You must be at least 17 years old to hold a sport pilot certificate. The age is 16 if you only want glider or balloon privileges. You must also be able to read, speak, write and understand English. If a medical reason stops you from meeting the language rule, the FAA can add limits to your certificate instead of turning you away. To be a student pilot you must be 16 (14 for a glider or balloon).

The path has fixed steps. You train with an authorized instructor and learn the knowledge areas through instructor ground training or a home-study course. That instructor writes a logbook endorsement saying you are ready for the knowledge test. You pass the test, finish your flight training and experience, and get a second logbook endorsement from the instructor who taught you to fly. Then you take the practical test with an examiner.

Rule 61.309 lists what you must study. The list includes the regulations that touch sport pilots, NTSB accident reporting, the Aeronautical Information Manual and advisory circulars, chart reading for VFR navigation, weather and wind shear, collision avoidance and wake turbulence, density altitude, weight and balance, aerodynamics and aircraft systems, stalls and spins, aeronautical decision making, and preflight planning. This course follows that list.

Rule 61.311 lists what you must be trained to do. For an airplane the list is preflight preparation, preflight procedures, airport operations, takeoffs, landings and go-arounds, performance maneuvers, ground reference maneuvers, navigation, slow flight, stalls, emergency operations and post-flight procedures. The practical test checks the same areas.

Flight experience for airplane privileges

For single-engine land or sea airplane privileges you must log at least 20 hours of flight time. At least 15 of those hours are flight training from an authorized instructor in a single-engine airplane. At least 5 hours are solo flight training in the areas of operation in 61.311.

Inside those hours you need 2 hours of cross-country flight training and 10 takeoffs and landings to a full stop, each one flown in the traffic pattern at an airport. You also need one solo cross-country flight of at least 75 nautical miles in total. It must include a full-stop landing at two points, and one leg must cover a straight-line distance of at least 25 nautical miles.

You also need 2 hours of flight training with an instructor on the test areas in the 2 calendar months before the month of your practical test. Up to 2.5 hours of training in a qualified flight simulation training device or aviation training device can count toward the experience, if an instructor with the matching aircraft privilege gives the training.

These are minimums. Most students need more time. The instructor decides when you are ready and signs the endorsement.

What the certificate lets you do

With a sport pilot certificate you may act as pilot in command of an aircraft that meets the performance and design limits in 61.316. The next lesson covers those limits in detail. Your category and class privileges and your endorsements decide which of those aircraft you may fly.

You may share the operating expenses of a flight with a passenger. Only fuel, oil, airport expenses and aircraft rental fees count as operating expenses. You must pay at least half of them.

What the certificate forbids

Rule 61.315(c) is a list of things you may not do as pilot in command. Learn the list in groups. The first group is money. You may not carry a passenger or property for compensation or hire, fly for compensation or hire, fly in furtherance of a business, demonstrate an aircraft in flight to a buyer if you are an aircraft salesperson, or fly a passenger-carrying airlift sponsored by a charity.

The second group is people. You may not carry more than one passenger. This limit holds even when the airplane has four seats.

The third group is where and when you fly. You may not fly at night unless you have met the night rules in 61.329. You may not fly in Class A airspace. You may not fly in Class B, C or D airspace, at an airport in that airspace, or to, from, through or at an airport with an operating control tower, unless you have met 61.325. You may not fly outside the United States without permission from that country, and your certificate carries the limit "Holder does not meet ICAO requirements." You may not fly above 10,000 feet MSL or 2,000 feet AGL, whichever is higher. You may not fly when the flight or surface visibility is less than 3 statute miles. You may not fly without visual reference to the surface.

The fourth group is the aircraft. You may not fly contrary to the operating limitations on the aircraft's airworthiness certificate. You may not tow any object. You may not serve as a pilot flight crewmember on an aircraft that needs more than one pilot. You may not fly an aircraft that needs a type rating. You may not fly an aircraft with a VH above 87 knots CAS unless you met the endorsement rule in 61.327(b), and you need the training in 61.327(a) for an airplane with a VH of 87 knots CAS or less. You may not fly retractable gear or a manual controllable pitch propeller airplane unless you met 61.331.

The last group is personal. You may not fly contrary to any limit on your pilot certificate or medical certificate, any limit or endorsement from an instructor, or any restriction on your U.S. driver's license when you use that license as proof of medical fitness.

Endorsements instead of ratings

A sport pilot certificate does not list category and class ratings. After you pass the practical test, the FAA gives you a logbook endorsement for each category and class you may fly. Keep your logbook. It is your proof of privileges.

To add another category or class later, follow 61.321. For airplane single-engine land or sea, or a helicopter with simplified flight controls, you must pass a practical test. For other categories you get training and a logbook endorsement from your instructor. Then a different instructor gives you a proficiency check and signs a second endorsement.

If you hold a higher certificate, such as private pilot, you can still use sport pilot privileges. When you do, 61.303 sends you back to the sport pilot limits and endorsements. A pilot with a category and class rating for the aircraft being flown does not have to follow the sport pilot limits in that aircraft.

Keeping the certificate usable

A pilot certificate is issued without an expiration date. It stays valid until you surrender it or the FAA suspends or revokes it. You must carry it, with a photo ID, whenever you act as a required crewmember. A state driver's license is an accepted photo ID.

You need a flight review every 24 calendar months. The review is at least 1 hour of flight training and 1 hour of ground training with an authorized instructor, in an aircraft you are qualified to fly. The instructor endorses your logbook. A review in March 2025 keeps you legal through the end of March 2027.

To carry a passenger you need three takeoffs and three landings in the previous 90 days, with you at the controls. The landings must be in the same category and class. A tailwheel airplane needs full-stop landings in a tailwheel airplane. Night passenger flights need three full-stop night takeoffs and landings in the previous 90 days, counted from 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise.

Why the rules changed

In July 2025 the FAA published the MOSAIC final rule (Modernization of Special Airworthiness Certification). It separated two ideas that used to be tied together: how an aircraft is certificated and what a sport pilot may fly. Before MOSAIC, a sport pilot could fly only an aircraft that fit the "light-sport aircraft" definition in 14 CFR 1.1. Now the limits for sport pilots sit in part 61, in section 61.316.

The pilot rules in part 61 took effect on October 22, 2025. The aircraft certification side of MOSAIC, including the new light-sport category rules and consensus standards, applies to airworthiness certificates issued on or after July 24, 2026. The current eCFR text of 14 CFR 1.1 no longer contains the light-sport aircraft definition.

An aircraft can still carry a "light-sport category" airworthiness certificate, but that label no longer decides what a sport pilot may fly. Section 61.316 decides. A sport pilot can now fly some standard-category airplanes and other aircraft that meet the limits, as long as the operating limitations on the aircraft's airworthiness certificate allow it.

Older books, videos, apps and practice questions may still teach the pre-MOSAIC limits. If a source disagrees with 61.315 or 61.316, trust the current regulation and ask your instructor.

The aircraft limits in 61.316

Stall speed: the aircraft must have a stall speed, or minimum steady flight speed, without lift-enhancing devices (VS1) of no more than 45 knots CAS. Airplanes have a looser limit of 59 knots CAS at maximum certificated takeoff weight and the most critical center of gravity. CAS means calibrated airspeed.

Seats: no more than two persons, except airplanes, which may have up to four seats. Remember that the number of seats is not the number of people you may carry. You still carry one passenger.

Cabin and power: if the aircraft has a cabin, it must not be pressurized. A powered aircraft, other than a balloon or airship, must keep directional control if it loses partial power. It must also let the pilot set up a controlled descent after a partial or total powerplant failure.

Gear and propeller: a powered aircraft other than a glider must have fixed landing gear, and a fixed, ground-adjustable or automated controllable pitch propeller. A glider may have fixed or retractable gear. A gyroplane must have a fixed-pitch, semi-rigid, teetering, two-blade rotor system. A helicopter must be certificated with the simplified flight controls designation.

Sport pilots may also fly an aircraft with retractable landing gear, or an airplane with a manual controllable pitch propeller, after the training and endorsement in 61.331.

There is no longer a weight limit, no cap on maximum speed, and no single-reciprocating-engine rule. A sport pilot still may not fly an aircraft that needs a type rating under 61.31(a).

The "since original certification" rule

Section 61.316(a) says the aircraft must meet the limits "since its original certification." You cannot change an aircraft to make it fit.

Taking seats out of an airplane that was originally certificated with more than four seats does not make it eligible. The FAA's advisory circular says the original design and performance still count.

The same idea covers stall speed. Vortex generators, short takeoff and landing kits and other lift devices may be installed, but the aircraft's original VS1 must still meet the limit.

There is one exception. Landing gear and propeller changes are allowed. A sport pilot may fly an aircraft with retractable gear, or an airplane with a manual controllable pitch propeller, if the pilot has the 61.331 training and endorsement.

Extra training and endorsements

VH endorsement (61.327): VH is the top speed in level flight at maximum continuous power. For an airplane with a VH of 87 knots CAS or less, you need ground and flight training in such an airplane and a logbook endorsement. For any aircraft with a VH above 87 knots CAS you need the same kind of training and endorsement in an aircraft above 87 knots. A sport pilot who logged pilot-in-command time in an airplane with a VH of 87 knots CAS or less before April 2, 2010 does not need the first endorsement.

Retractable gear and manual controllable pitch propeller (61.331): get the complex-airplane training and endorsement in 61.31(e), or get ground and flight training in an aircraft with that equipment and an instructor's endorsement. A pilot who logged pilot-in-command time before October 22, 2025 in a water aircraft with retractable gear does not need the gear endorsement.

Class B, C and D airspace and towered airports (61.325): ground and flight training on radios, communications, navigation systems and radar services, three takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an airport with an operating control tower, and the part 91 rules for B, C and D airspace and ATC clearances. The instructor signs a logbook endorsement.

Night (61.329): 3 hours of night training in the category and class, including one cross-country flight with a landing at an airport at least 25 nautical miles from the departure airport (not required for powered parachutes) and at least 10 night takeoffs and 10 night landings to a full stop. You need an instructor's endorsement and either a medical certificate or the BasicMed conditions.

Old limits you will still see

The pre-MOSAIC definition of a light-sport aircraft set these limits: maximum takeoff weight of 1,320 pounds (1,430 pounds for an aircraft intended for water operations), maximum level-flight speed (VH) of 120 knots CAS, maximum VS1 of 45 knots CAS for every aircraft, two seats including the pilot, one reciprocating engine, fixed gear except for water aircraft and gliders, and a fixed or ground-adjustable propeller.

Today weight, the 120-knot speed cap, the engine rule and the two-seat rule for airplanes are gone. Airplanes may have a VS1 of up to 59 knots and four seats. Night flight, retractable gear and manual controllable pitch propellers are now possible with training.

The FAA's Airplane Flying Handbook chapter on light-sport airplanes still describes the older list. Use it for flying technique, not for current eligibility.

Adding another category or class

Under 61.321, a sport pilot (or a higher-grade pilot) who wants another category or class follows one of two paths. For airplane single-engine land or sea, or a helicopter with simplified flight controls, the pilot passes a practical test.

For other categories, such as glider, gyroplane, weight-shift-control or powered parachute, the pilot gets training and an instructor endorsement, passes a proficiency check from a different instructor, completes an application, and receives a second endorsement from the instructor who gave the check.

Three situations

Powered aircraft, gyroplanes and other aircraft that meet 61.316, except gliders and balloons: you must hold either a medical certificate issued under part 67 or a U.S. driver's license. This applies to a student pilot seeking sport pilot privileges, to a sport pilot, and to an instructor or examiner who flies as pilot in command or as a required crewmember.

Gliders and balloons: a sport pilot, and a student pilot seeking those privileges, needs neither a medical certificate nor a driver's license.

Night flight: a driver's license alone is not enough. You need a medical certificate or you must meet the BasicMed conditions. The section on night privileges below explains this.

Conditions for using your driver's license

The license must be a U.S. driver's license, and you must follow every restriction on it. You must also follow any court or administrative order that applies to driving a motor vehicle.

If you ever applied for a medical certificate, your most recent application must have found you eligible for at least a third-class certificate. If you have been denied, you cannot fall back on your license.

If you have ever held a medical certificate, the most recent one must not have been suspended or revoked. Your most recent special issuance authorization must not have been withdrawn. An expired medical certificate does not by itself block you.

You must not know of, or have reason to know of, any medical condition that would keep you from flying safely. This last condition is on you. The license does not replace your own judgment.

Medical rules for night flight

Night privileges under 61.329 require a medical certificate issued under part 67, or the BasicMed conditions in 61.113(i), together with the training and endorsement described in the aircraft lesson.

BasicMed has its own steps. You must have held a regular medical certificate at some time after July 14, 2006. You must complete the medical education course in the 24 calendar months before you fly, and you must have a comprehensive exam by a state-licensed physician in the 48 calendar months before you fly. If a doctor has diagnosed a condition that could affect flying, you must be under that doctor's care while you fly.

Your most recent medical certificate under that route may be expired, and it may include a special issuance. It cannot have been suspended or revoked.

You are the final check

Medical rules are a minimum. A driver's license does not know that you have a new medicine, a fever or an unexplained dizzy spell. Ground yourself when you are not fit.

Rule 91.17 forbids acting as a crewmember within 8 hours after drinking any alcoholic beverage, while under the influence of alcohol, with a blood or breath alcohol concentration of 0.04 or more, or while using any drug that affects your faculties in a way that is unsafe. Eight hours is a minimum. Many pilots wait longer.

Carry your pilot certificate, a photo ID and your medical proof. A state driver's license can serve as both your photo ID and your medical proof.

The classes at a glance

Class A starts at 18,000 feet MSL. A sport pilot cannot fly there, and the 10,000 foot altitude limit keeps you far below it anyway.

Class B surrounds the busiest airports. It usually runs from the surface up to 10,000 feet MSL and looks like an upside-down wedding cake. You need an ATC clearance to enter, and VFR flight in Class B requires you to stay clear of clouds. Two-way radio, a transponder with altitude reporting and ADS-B Out are required unless ATC authorizes otherwise.

Class C usually has a 5 nautical mile core that runs from the surface to 4,000 feet above the airport, and a 10 nautical mile shelf that runs from no lower than 1,200 feet up to 4,000 feet above the airport. You must establish two-way radio contact with ATC before you enter and keep it while you are inside.

Class D runs from the surface to about 2,500 feet above the airport and surrounds an airport with an operating control tower. You must establish two-way radio contact before you enter. If the tower closes at night, the airspace may turn into Class E or Class G. The Chart Supplement lists the hours.

Class E is controlled airspace that is not A, B, C or D. It often starts at 700 feet AGL (shown on the sectional chart with a magenta fade) or 1,200 feet AGL (blue fade). Some Class E starts at the surface around an airport. You need no clearance and no radio call to enter Class E.

Class G is uncontrolled airspace. It is everything that is not Class A, B, C, D or E. It is mostly the low airspace away from airports.

The sport pilot endorsement for controlled airspace (61.325)

A sport pilot may not act as pilot in command in Class B, C or D airspace, at an airport in that airspace, or to, from, through or at an airport with an operating control tower, until an authorized instructor has given ground and flight training and a logbook endorsement.

The training covers radios, communications, navigation systems and radar services. It covers operations at a towered airport, including three takeoffs and landings to a full stop, each in the pattern, at an airport with an operating control tower. It also covers the part 91 flight rules for B, C and D airspace and ATC clearances.

The endorsement does not open every airport. A short list of the busiest Class B primary airports (listed in appendix D of part 91) still requires at least a private pilot certificate. Check this before you plan a flight into a large city.

A towered airport can sit in Class E or even Class G airspace. The endorsement is tied to the tower, not only to the airspace letter.

VFR weather minimums (91.155)

Class B: 3 statute miles of flight visibility and clear of clouds. Class C and Class D: 3 statute miles, with 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above and 2,000 feet horizontal clearance from clouds. Class E below 10,000 feet MSL uses the same numbers: 3 miles and 500, 1,000 and 2,000.

Class G at 1,200 feet AGL or less, in the daytime, needs 1 statute mile of visibility and clear of clouds. At night, Class G at that height needs 3 statute miles and the 500, 1,000 and 2,000 foot cloud clearance. Between 1,200 feet AGL and 10,000 feet MSL, Class G follows the day or night rules: 1 mile by day and 3 miles by night, with the 500, 1,000 and 2,000 foot cloud clearance.

In the surface area of Class B, C, D or E airspace, you may not take off, land or enter the traffic pattern unless the ground visibility is at least 3 statute miles. If ground visibility is not reported, flight visibility must be at least 3 statute miles. You also may not operate beneath the ceiling within controlled airspace designated to the surface if the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet.

Your own certificate is stricter than the table. Section 61.315(c)(12) forbids acting as pilot in command when the flight or surface visibility is less than 3 statute miles. So the 1 mile daytime Class G minimum does not help you. Also remember 61.315(c)(13): you must always keep visual reference to the surface.

Altitude and speed limits

Your ceiling is 10,000 feet MSL or 2,000 feet AGL, whichever is higher.

Minimum safe altitudes (91.119): always high enough to make an emergency landing without undue hazard to people or property if the engine fails. Over a congested area or an open-air gathering, stay 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within 2,000 feet horizontally. Elsewhere, stay at least 500 feet above the surface. Over open water or sparsely populated areas, stay at least 500 feet away from any person, vessel, vehicle or structure. Powered parachutes and weight-shift-control aircraft may go lower than the 500 foot rule if they do it without hazard to people or property.

Speed limits (91.117): 250 knots indicated airspeed below 10,000 feet MSL. 200 knots at or below 2,500 feet above the surface within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of Class C or D airspace. 200 knots in the airspace under a Class B area or in a VFR corridor through it. These limits rarely stop a sport pilot, but the tests ask for them.

Special use airspace, TFRs and equipment

Prohibited areas ban flight. Restricted areas allow flight only with permission from the using or controlling agency, because they hide hazards such as artillery fire or missiles (91.133). Military operations areas, warning areas, alert areas and controlled firing areas are other kinds of special use airspace. They appear on the sectional chart. Learn the symbols and read the legend.

A temporary flight restriction (TFR) closes airspace for events such as wildfires, VIP visits and large sports events. TFRs appear in NOTAMs, so check them in your preflight briefing every time.

Transponder and ADS-B Out are required in Class B and C airspace, inside 30 nautical miles of the busiest airports (the "Mode C veil") from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL, and in Class E at or above 10,000 feet MSL excluding the airspace at and below 2,500 feet above the surface. An aircraft that was not originally certificated with an engine-driven electrical system has limited exceptions. Check 91.215 and 91.225 before you fly into these areas.

Right of way and collision avoidance

Rule 91.113 starts with see and avoid. When the weather permits, you watch for other aircraft whether you fly under VFR or IFR. If another aircraft has the right-of-way, you give way, and you may not pass over, under or ahead of it unless you are well clear.

An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic.

Converging aircraft of the same category: the aircraft on the right has the right-of-way. Head-on or nearly so: both turn right. Overtaking: the aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way, and the overtaking aircraft passes on the right.

Different categories: a balloon has the right-of-way over any other category. A glider has the right-of-way over powered aircraft. An airship has the right-of-way over other powered aircraft, except one towing or refueling. An aircraft towing or refueling another aircraft has the right-of-way over other powered aircraft.

Landing aircraft have the right-of-way over aircraft in flight or on the surface. When two aircraft approach to land, the lower one has the right-of-way, but it may not cut in front of another aircraft on final approach or overtake it.

The air around you

The standard atmosphere at sea level is 15 degrees C, with a pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury. Temperature falls about 2 degrees C for each 1,000 feet of climb. Pressure falls about 1 inch of mercury for each 1,000 feet. Real air is rarely standard, which is why altimeter settings and density altitude matter.

Sun heats the ground unevenly, and uneven heating moves air. Warm air rises and cooler air flows in. That flow is wind. Wind is also the cause of most surface turbulence, and it shapes your takeoff and landing.

Air holds only so much water vapor. The dew point is the temperature at which the air is full. When the air temperature and the dew point come together, the vapor condenses into cloud or fog. Rising air cools about 5.4 degrees F per 1,000 feet while its dew point falls about 1 degree F, so the two draw together about 4.4 degrees F per 1,000 feet. Divide the temperature and dew point spread in degrees F by 4.4 and multiply by 1,000 to estimate the height of the cloud base above ground level.

Stable air resists vertical motion. It makes layered clouds, steady rain and smooth air, but also poor visibility under a low sky. Unstable air keeps rising once it starts. It makes puffy cumulus clouds, gusty winds, good visibility between clouds, and thunderstorms when the air is moist enough.

Fronts and fog

A cold front moves fast. The cooler air shoves under the warmer air and lifts it quickly. Expect a narrow band of heavy weather, gusty winds and sometimes a line of storms, followed by clearing skies and cooler air.

A warm front moves slowly. The warm air slides up over cool air. Expect a wide area of low cloud, steady rain and poor visibility ahead of the front.

A stationary front barely moves, and an occluded front forms when a cold front catches a warm front. Both can bring many hours of poor weather.

Fog forms when the temperature and the dew point come within a few degrees of each other. It is most common on calm, clear nights, over wet ground and in moist air that flows over cooler surfaces. If the spread between temperature and dew point is small and shrinking, expect fog or low cloud. Plan for poor visibility near sunrise.

Hazards you must know

Thunderstorms need moist, unstable air and a lifting force. They pass through three stages. A growing cumulus cloud has updrafts. In the mature stage, which begins in about 15 minutes, rain and hail begin to fall, and violent turbulence exists inside and near the cloud. In the dissipating stage, downdrafts spread out. A thunderstorm can bring severe turbulence, hail, lightning, heavy rain, strong wind shear and tornadoes. Light aircraft must stay far away. You cannot see well enough inside a storm to go around it, and you should never plan a path under one.

Wind shear is a sudden, strong change in wind speed or direction over a short distance. Shear near the ground is dangerous because you have little height to recover. A microburst is a small, intense downdraft that spreads out when it hits the ground. An airplane flying through it sees a headwind, then a strong downdraft, then a tailwind. Microbursts are a major hazard near thunderstorms.

Icing builds ice on wings, propeller, windshield and sensors. Light sport aircraft rarely have ice protection. Avoid visible moisture, such as cloud and rain, when the temperature is near or below freezing. Engines can ice up too. Carburetor ice forms when air cools quickly inside the carburetor, so it can occur even when the outside air is above freezing. Use carburetor heat as the manufacturer directs.

Turbulence comes from heat, from wind blowing over hills and buildings, from wind shear and from other aircraft. Strong winds across mountains can create mountain waves and rotors. If you fly in mountains, get training from a mountain-qualified instructor first.

Wake turbulence is air that spins off the wingtips of other aircraft. Cover it in the airport module.

Reading the reports

A METAR is an hourly weather report from an airport. It always has the same order: station, day and time in UTC, wind, visibility, weather, sky condition, temperature and dew point, and altimeter setting. Example: KABC 251753Z 24012G20KT 8SM FEW040 BKN070 22/14 A2992. It reads: station KABC, on the 25th day at 1753 UTC, wind from 240 degrees at 12 knots gusting to 20, visibility 8 statute miles, few clouds at 4,000 feet, a broken layer at 7,000 feet, temperature 22 C, dew point 14 C, altimeter 29.92.

The ceiling is the height above ground level of the lowest layer reported as broken or overcast. In the example the ceiling is 7,000 feet. Few and scattered layers are not ceilings. If the sky is totally hidden by ground-based cloud, the vertical visibility is the ceiling.

Weather websites color airports by flight category. Green VFR means a ceiling above 3,000 feet and visibility above 5 statute miles. Blue marginal VFR (MVFR) means a ceiling of 1,000 to 3,000 feet or visibility of 3 to 5 miles. Red IFR means a ceiling of 500 to less than 1,000 feet or visibility of 1 to less than 3 miles. Purple low IFR means a ceiling below 500 feet or visibility below 1 mile. These categories are only a quick look. They are not the legal VFR minimums in 91.155.

A TAF is a forecast for the area within about 5 statute miles of an airport. A PIREP is a pilot report of what other pilots saw in the air. Winds and temperatures aloft forecasts give wind direction (in tens of degrees, true), speed in knots and temperature at set altitudes. Wind speeds in knots convert to miles per hour when you multiply by 1.15.

Advisories warn of hazards. AIRMET Sierra warns of areas of IFR conditions and mountain obscuration. AIRMET Tango warns of moderate turbulence, strong surface winds above 30 knots and low-level wind shear. AIRMET Zulu warns of moderate icing and freezing levels. SIGMETs warn of severe hazards that affect all aircraft, and convective SIGMETs warn of significant thunderstorm activity. Check all of them for your route.

Getting a briefing and deciding

Rule 91.103 requires you to become familiar with all available information about your flight. For a flight not in the vicinity of an airport, that includes weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements and alternatives. Get your weather from official sources, such as Flight Service and the Aviation Weather Center. Look at it before you drive to the airport and again before you start the engine.

Make a go or no-go decision on facts. Compare the weather to your own personal minimums, which should be stricter than the legal minimums while you are new. Light aircraft are sensitive to wind. Check the crosswind and gusts against the limit in the flight manual and against your own skill. Do not fly when the forecast gets worse than your training.

Remember that your certificate bars flight without visual reference to the surface and flight with less than 3 miles of visibility. Weather that is legal for another pilot may be illegal for you.

If you lose sight of the natural horizon, treat it as an emergency, even if it happened by accident. The FAA's Airplane Flying Handbook says pilots without current instrument skill often lose control of the airplane in about 10 minutes of flying only by instruments. Do not panic. The first job is to keep the wings level. Trust the instruments instead of your body, trim the airplane for hands-off level flight, and ask ATC for help (121.5 MHz is the emergency frequency). The best answer is never to fly into weather that leads there.

Four forces and the controls

Four forces act on an aircraft in flight. Lift pulls up, weight pulls down, thrust pushes forward and drag pulls back. In steady, level flight, lift equals weight and thrust equals drag.

Lift comes from the wing moving through the air. It grows with the square of the airspeed. It also grows with the angle of attack, which is the angle between the wing's chord line and the oncoming air. You control the angle of attack with the elevator or stick.

Drag has two main kinds. Parasite drag rises with speed. Induced drag is a by-product of making lift and is greatest at slow speed and high angle of attack. Together they give a speed with the least total drag, the best glide speed for most aircraft.

The primary controls are the elevator for pitch, the ailerons for roll and the rudder for yaw. Trim takes the pressure off the controls. Flaps raise lift and drag at the same time, so you can fly steeper and slower on approach.

Angle of attack and stalls

A wing stalls when the angle of attack goes past a critical value. The smooth airflow over the top of the wing separates, lift drops sharply and the nose usually drops. The wing can stall at any airspeed, in any attitude and with any power setting. The cause is always too much angle of attack.

The first step in every stall recovery is to reduce the angle of attack by pushing forward on the controls. Then level the wings, add power as needed to reach flying speed, and return to the planned flight path. Use the maker's procedure if the flight manual has one. Do not pull up or add power before you lower the angle of attack.

Stalls occur most often in the traffic pattern, where you are low and slow. Typical causes are a steep turn at a low speed, a slip or skid during a turn from base to final, and a pull-up to stretch a glide. Learn to hear and feel the warning signs: a stall warning horn, buffeting, mushy controls and a high nose.

Load factor and stall speed

Load factor is the ratio of the lift the wing makes to the weight of the aircraft. It is 1 G in straight and level flight. In a coordinated level turn it goes up with bank. At 60 degrees of bank the load factor is 2 Gs. At 45 degrees it is about 1.4 Gs. At 30 degrees it is about 1.15 Gs.

Stall speed rises with the square root of the load factor. At 2 Gs the stall speed is about 41 percent higher. A sport airplane that stalls at 50 knots straight and level stalls at about 71 knots in a level 60 degree banked turn. A 4 G pull makes it stall at 100 knots.

Design maneuvering speed (VA) is the speed below which you can use full deflection of one control, one time, in smooth air, without damaging the airplane. VA is not fixed. It is lower when the airplane is lighter. For many older airplanes it is about 1.7 times the stall speed. Always read it in the flight manual.

Turning tendencies, stability and ground effect

A propeller makes four effects that push the nose to one side at high power and low speed: torque reaction, corkscrewing slipstream, gyroscopic action and asymmetric thrust (P-factor). The cure is right rudder when you add power in most single-engine airplanes that spin their propellers clockwise as seen from the cockpit.

Adverse yaw is the tendency of the nose to swing opposite the turn when you roll with the ailerons. The rudder cancels it. Always use coordinated rudder.

A stable airplane tends to return to its trimmed flight condition after a disturbance. Aft loading makes an airplane less stable. Forward loading makes it more stable and a little slower.

Ground effect is a change in airflow when the wing is very close to the ground. Induced drag falls, and the airplane floats. At a height of one wingspan the drop is only about 1 percent. At one-quarter of a wingspan it is about 24 percent, and at one-tenth of a wingspan it is about 48 percent. So the effect is strong only very near the surface. When it ends, as the airplane climbs away, you notice a sink. An airplane can lift off in ground effect at too slow a speed and then settle back. Stay low and accelerate to the climb speed.

Wingtip vortices form behind the wing when it makes lift. They sink and drift with the wind. Heavy, clean, slow airplanes make the strongest vortices. The airport module covers the avoidance rules.

Spins

A spin is a stall in which the aircraft also yaws. One wing is deeply stalled and the other is less stalled, so the aircraft rotates as it descends. It follows a stall with an uncoordinated control input, usually too much rudder or too little airspeed in a turn.

The recovery steps vary with the airplane, and the flight manual comes first. If the flight manual has no procedure, the Airplane Flying Handbook gives a six-step template. First reduce power to idle. Second, put the ailerons in neutral. Third, apply and hold full opposite rudder until the rotation stops. Fourth, apply brisk forward elevator to reduce the angle of attack. Fifth, neutralize the rudder after the rotation stops. Sixth, pull back gently to return to level flight, taking care not to stall again or to exceed the G limits.

Rule 61.309(j) lists stall awareness, spin entry, spins and spin recovery techniques among the knowledge areas for sport pilots, "as applicable." Know the entry causes and the recovery steps, even if your training airplane is not approved for spins.

Performance

Pressure altitude is the altitude shown when the altimeter is set to 29.92. Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature. When density altitude is high, the air is thin. The engine makes less power, the propeller makes less thrust and the wing makes less lift for a given airspeed. Hot, high and humid days are the worst.

Higher density altitude means a longer takeoff roll, a shallower climb and a longer landing roll at a higher ground speed. You can lose a lot of margin on a summer afternoon at a high airport.

More weight does the same. The airplane needs more speed to lift off, makes a longer roll, and climbs more slowly. A headwind shortens the roll, and a tailwind lengthens it. Soft, wet or grassy surfaces, and uphill slopes, lengthen the takeoff roll. Wet runways can cause hydroplaning on landing.

Use the flight manual's performance charts, apply a safety margin, and compare the answer to the runway you will use. Rule 91.103 requires you to know the runway lengths and the takeoff and landing distances for your flight.

Climb speeds: VX gives the greatest height gain per distance and clears obstacles. VY gives the greatest height gain per time. The best-glide speed gives the most distance without power. Learn these speeds for your aircraft and fly them.

Engine, ignition, fuel and propeller

Most sport aircraft use a four-stroke piston engine. Each cylinder goes through intake, compression, power and exhaust. Two independent ignition systems (usually magnetos) fire two spark plugs in each cylinder. If one fails, the engine runs on the other, with a small drop in power. You check each system at the engine run-up, and you confirm the drop is within the limits in the flight manual.

A carburetor mixes fuel and air. Fuel injection sprays fuel into the intake directly. A carburetor can ice up because the air cools quickly inside it. This can occur on a day with a warm outside temperature. Carburetor heat melts or prevents the ice. Because heat reduces power, do not leave it on at full power unless the manual says so.

The mixture control sets the fuel and air ratio. A mixture that is too lean at high power can cause detonation. Detonation is an uncontrolled, explosive burn in the cylinder. It overheats the engine and can destroy it. Using a lower fuel grade than the maker requires is another cause. Use the fuel grade the manual specifies. Do not mix grades without authority.

Always check the fuel for water and dirt, with a sampler, from each sump and drain. Check the quantity by eye as well as by gauge. Check oil level before every flight. Avoid fuel exhaustion and fuel starvation, which are two of the most avoidable accident causes. Rule 91.151 requires, for an airplane in VFR, enough fuel to reach the first point of intended landing and then fly 30 minutes by day or 45 minutes at night at normal cruise.

Exhaust gases contain carbon monoxide, which is invisible and odorless. A cracked exhaust system can let it into the cabin heater. If you feel a headache, drowsiness or dizziness in flight, turn off the cabin heat, open the vents and land.

Propellers on sport aircraft are fixed pitch, ground adjustable or constant speed. A constant speed propeller is allowed for a sport pilot only after the 61.331 training, unless it is an automated controllable pitch propeller.

Electrical system and avionics

A generator or alternator charges the battery and runs the equipment. The battery starts the engine and acts as a backup. A master switch connects the system. If the charging light or ammeter shows a failure, switch off nonessential loads, and plan to land where it is safe. A fuse or circuit breaker protects each circuit.

Some sport aircraft have no engine-driven electrical system at all. Such aircraft enjoy limited exceptions from the transponder and ADS-B rules, but only if they were not originally certificated with such a system.

Flight instruments

The pitot-static system feeds three instruments. The airspeed indicator uses pitot (ram) air and static air. The altimeter and the vertical speed indicator use only static air. If the pitot tube blocks and its drain hole stays open, the airspeed reads zero. If the pitot tube and its drain hole both block, the airspeed indicator acts like an altimeter. If the static port blocks, the airspeed reads too low above the blockage altitude and too high below it. The altimeter freezes, and the vertical speed indicator reads zero. Pitot heat and a pitot cover help. Look at the pitot tube and static port on the preflight.

The altimeter shows height from the pressure around it. Set it to the latest altimeter setting. Set it to 29.92 only to find pressure altitude. Altitude errors can come from setting errors and from non-standard temperature.

Gyroscopic instruments include the attitude indicator, the heading indicator and the turn coordinator. A gyro is rigid in space and shows precession. The heading indicator drifts, so compare it to the compass often and reset it. Vacuum or electric power spins the gyros.

The magnetic compass is the simplest instrument and has errors. Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north. Deviation is an error caused by the aircraft's own metal and electrical equipment, noted on a compass card. Turning and acceleration errors add to this. Check the compass against known headings before you rely on it.

Know the airspeed markings. The white arc is the flap operating range, from VS0 (stall speed in the landing configuration) to VFE (maximum flap extended speed). The green arc is the normal range, from VS1 (clean stall speed) to VNO (maximum structural cruising speed). The yellow arc is the caution range. The red line is VNE, the never-exceed speed.

Airworthiness, documents and inspections

The pilot in command is responsible for deciding whether an aircraft is in a condition for safe flight (91.7), and for stopping the flight if something goes wrong in the air (91.7(b)). The pilot in command is also the final authority for the flight (91.3).

Rule 91.203 requires an appropriate and current airworthiness certificate and an effective registration, both aboard. The airworthiness certificate must be displayed where passengers and crew can read it. Remember the memory aid AROW: airworthiness certificate, registration, operating limitations (flight manual or placards) and weight and balance data.

Under 91.409(a), no one may operate most aircraft unless it has had an annual inspection within the preceding 12 calendar months. The exceptions in 91.409(c) include aircraft with an experimental airworthiness certificate or a special airworthiness certificate in the light-sport category. Those aircraft follow their own inspection rules. An aircraft that carries persons for hire, or that an instructor provides for flight instruction for hire, also needs an annual or 100-hour inspection within the preceding 100 hours of time in service.

Airworthiness directives are legal orders to fix a known problem. Aircraft must comply with them. A directive can limit a flight.

Required equipment: for an aircraft with a standard airworthiness certificate, rule 91.205(b) lists the equipment needed for daytime VFR. It includes the airspeed indicator, altimeter, magnetic direction indicator, tachometer, oil pressure and temperature gauges, a fuel gauge, a landing gear position indicator if the gear retracts, safety belts and shoulder harnesses, and an emergency locator transmitter where 91.207 requires one. For other categories, the aircraft's operating limitations and equipment list say what is required.

If something is inoperative, 91.213(d) allows flight in some aircraft only if the item is not required by the type certificate, the equipment list, 91.205 or an airworthiness directive. The item must be removed and placarded or deactivated and placarded, and a pilot or a mechanic must decide it is not a hazard.

At night, 91.209 requires position lights, and requires the anticollision lights to be on if the aircraft has them.

Weight and balance

Every aircraft has a maximum takeoff weight and a center of gravity (CG) range in the flight manual. Empty weight is the weight of the aircraft as listed in its weight and balance data. Useful load is the maximum takeoff weight minus empty weight. Fuel, oil, people and baggage all count against the useful load.

Weight times arm equals moment. The arm is the distance from the datum, a reference point set by the maker. The CG is total moment divided by total weight. Aircraft weight and balance computations are also a knowledge area under 61.309(h).

Fuel weighs 6 pounds per gallon for aviation gasoline. 30 gallons weigh 180 pounds, which is more than one passenger.

Worked example. Empty weight 700 pounds at an arm of 30 inches. Two people, 340 pounds, at 36 inches. 20 gallons of fuel, 120 pounds, at 38 inches. Baggage, 20 pounds, at 60 inches. Moments: 21,000 plus 12,240 plus 4,560 plus 1,200 equals 39,000. Total weight is 1,180 pounds. The CG is 39,000 divided by 1,180, which is about 33.05 inches. Compare that to the CG range and the total weight to the limit.

Effects of loading. A CG too far aft makes the aircraft less stable, harder to recover from a stall or spin, and faster. A CG too far forward makes it more stable but slower, and takes more elevator to flare. Overweight loading raises the stall speed and lengthens the takeoff roll.

As you burn fuel, the weight falls and the CG may shift. Check both at the start and the end of the flight. Powered parachutes, weight-shift-control aircraft and balloons hang their load below the lift, so they do not need CG computations. You must still avoid overloading them.

Charts and publications

The VFR sectional chart is the chart most sport pilots use. Its scale is 1:500,000, so 1 inch on the chart is about 6.86 nautical miles, or about 8 statute miles. It shows airports, airspace, radio aids, obstacles and terrain. Always check the chart's effective date, and use the legend and the FAA's Aeronautical Chart User's Guide to read the symbols.

Charts show airspace with colored lines. Class B is a solid blue line, Class C a solid magenta line, Class D a dashed blue line and Class E a dashed magenta line where it reaches the surface. A magenta shaded edge marks Class E that begins at 700 feet AGL. A blue shaded edge marks Class E that begins at 1,200 feet AGL. Study the legend on the real chart.

The maximum elevation figure (MEF) printed in each quadrangle gives the height of the highest obstacle or terrain in that area, with a safety margin. Use it for planning a safe altitude.

The Chart Supplement U.S. lists runway lengths, fuel, frequencies, airport hours and remarks. It is published in books by region and revised every 56 days. Check the current edition before you plan a landing at a new airport. Check NOTAMs too, because they list closures and hazards the chart does not.

Position on the Earth

Lines of latitude (parallels) run east and west and measure distance north or south of the equator. Lines of longitude (meridians) run north and south and measure distance east or west of the prime meridian. A position is given as latitude and longitude. One minute of latitude equals one nautical mile.

A nautical mile is 6,076 feet. A statute mile is 5,280 feet. A knot is one nautical mile per hour. To change knots into miles per hour, multiply by 1.15. Visibility is in statute miles. Aircraft speed on most airspeed indicators is in knots, and some show miles per hour as well.

Course, heading and variation

True course is the direction you want to fly over the ground, measured from true north. Wind pushes you off that line, so you point the nose to one side to cancel the drift. The angle is the wind correction angle (WCA). True heading is true course plus or minus the correction. Add the correction when the wind pushes you left, and subtract it when the wind pushes you right. Think of pointing into the wind.

Magnetic north is not true north. The angle between them is variation, and charts show it on dashed lines called isogonic lines. To change a true heading into a magnetic heading, add west variation and subtract east variation. The memory aid is "east is least, west is best."

The compass has its own errors, called deviation, which come from the metal and electrical equipment on the aircraft. A card near the compass lists corrections. After you correct for deviation you have the compass heading.

The order is: true course, plus or minus WCA, equals true heading. Then plus or minus variation gives magnetic heading. Then plus or minus deviation gives compass heading. Example: true course 090, wind correction 5 degrees to the right, so true heading 095. Variation is 10 degrees east, so magnetic heading is 085.

Time, speed, distance and fuel

Distance equals groundspeed multiplied by time. Time equals distance divided by groundspeed. Groundspeed is true airspeed corrected for wind. A headwind lowers it and a tailwind raises it. Example: 60 nautical miles at a groundspeed of 90 knots takes 40 minutes.

Fuel needed equals fuel burn per hour multiplied by time. Include the time for taxi, takeoff and climb as well as cruise. Add the legal reserve and a cushion of your own. Rule 91.151 requires an airplane to carry enough fuel for the first point of intended landing and then 30 minutes by day or 45 minutes at night at normal cruise. For a rotorcraft the reserve is 20 minutes.

Do the calculation twice, once on the ground and again in flight. Compare your actual groundspeed and fuel burn to the plan at each checkpoint. If you are burning more than planned, change your plan before you reach the point of no return.

Pilotage, dead reckoning and electronic aids

Pilotage means navigating by looking at landmarks and matching them to the chart. Dead reckoning means navigating by computing from time, airspeed, distance and direction, with the wind included. Most real flights mix the two. Pick checkpoints that are easy to see, such as a lake, a highway intersection or a tower, and space them so you can confirm your position often.

GPS moving maps, tablets and radios make navigation easier, but they can fail. Use them as aids. Keep your chart handy and follow your progress on it. Know where you are, and know what you would do if the screen went blank.

The practical test expects you to be able to plan a cross-country flight, use current charts, pick checkpoints and altitudes, compute headings, time and fuel, and apply information from NOTAMs and the Chart Supplement. You also complete a navigation log and simulate filing a VFR flight plan.

Planning, flight plans and getting lost

A VFR flight plan is not normally required within the continental United States, but it is a good safety habit. You open and close it with Flight Service. Control towers do not activate it. If you forget to close it, searchers may be sent for you.

Before you leave, rule 91.103 requires you to review weather, fuel, alternatives, runway lengths and your aircraft's takeoff and landing distances. Plan an alternate in case the weather or fuel changes. Check the weight and balance.

If you become unsure of your position, do not wait. Stay calm and keep flying the aircraft. Climb if it is safe, because height improves your view and your radio range. Use the chart to compare terrain features with where you think you are. Use GPS if you have it. Call ATC or Flight Service, say you are lost and ask for help. Make the call before you are low on fuel, not after.

Runways, markings and signs

A runway number is the magnetic direction of the runway centerline, rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, with the last zero dropped. A runway pointing 274 degrees magnetic is runway 27. Its other end is runway 9, because the opposite direction is 94 degrees. Parallel runways add L, R or C for left, right or center.

Runway markings are white. Taxiway markings, and holding position markings, are yellow. A runway holding position marking is four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, across the taxiway. The solid lines are on the side where you must stop. Never cross them without a clearance from the tower. At an airport with no tower, stop and check for traffic before you enter the runway.

Airport signs help you find your way. A sign with white writing on a red background marks a runway entrance or hold point. Mandatory instruction signs mean stop or hold. A sign with yellow writing on a black background says where you are. A sign with black writing on a yellow background points toward the taxiways or runways you can reach.

A displaced threshold, shown with arrows, is a part of the runway you may use for takeoff, and for landing rollout, but not for touchdown. A wind sock, a wind tee or a tetrahedron shows the wind direction. A segmented circle may show the pattern direction.

Airport lighting

The rotating beacon tells you an airport is there at night. A civil land airport shows alternating white and green flashes. A water airport shows white and yellow. Military airports show two quick white flashes between the green flashes. In Class B, C, D or E surface areas, a beacon on in the daytime often means the ground visibility is below 3 miles or the ceiling is below 1,000 feet.

Runway lights and taxiway lights help in the dark. Many small airports have pilot-controlled lighting. You click the microphone on the CTAF frequency a set number of times. The Chart Supplement tells you how.

A PAPI (precision approach path indicator) is a row of two or four lights beside the runway. On the correct glide path you see equal numbers of red and white lights. More red lights mean you are low. More white lights mean you are high. A PAPI gives safe guidance within about 10 degrees of the runway centerline and out to about 3.4 nautical miles from the threshold.

The traffic pattern

At an airport without a control tower, powered fixed-wing aircraft turn left in the pattern, unless the airport shows markings or lights that say to turn right (91.126(b)). The legs are upwind, crosswind, downwind, base and final. You depart straight out until you reach the pattern altitude or leave the pattern.

The pattern altitude is usually 1,000 feet above the airport surface for propeller-driven aircraft, unless the Chart Supplement lists something else. Enter at pattern altitude, level, at a 45 degree angle to the downwind leg, abeam the middle of the runway. Avoid straight-in approaches, because they mix with traffic that is already in the pattern.

Fly the same pattern as other traffic, look all around and use the radio. Midair collisions happen most often near airports. Do not descend into the pattern from above. Stay at pattern altitude until you turn base.

Airports in Class D airspace follow the tower's instructions. The tower may ask you to make a right pattern, a short approach or a straight-in approach. If you do not understand, ask. If you cannot do it, say "unable."

Radio at airports without a tower

Aircraft at these airports share a common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF). It might be a UNICOM station, a multicom frequency or the tower frequency when the tower is closed. The Chart Supplement lists it. If an airport has no tower and no UNICOM, use 122.9 MULTICOM. Common UNICOM frequencies are 122.7, 122.8, 122.725, 122.975 and 123.0.

The AIM recommends these calls: before you taxi, before you taxi onto the runway, about 10 miles out, when entering downwind, base and final, and when you leave the runway. Radio contact is not a clearance. Look for traffic after each call.

A radio call has four parts. Say who you are calling, who you are, where you are, and what you intend to do. Example: "Greenfield traffic, Sport 123, 10 miles south, descending to 3,000, inbound for landing, Greenfield traffic." Begin with the airport name so listeners know which airport you mean.

Radio at airports with a tower

Get the ATIS if there is one. It gives the weather and the active runway. Call ground control before you taxi, and stay on that frequency until the tower tells you to change. Ground frequencies are mostly in the 121.6 to 121.9 MHz range. Tower gives takeoff and landing clearances. Read back all hold-short instructions and runway assignments.

To enter Class D airspace, call before you get there and wait for the controller to answer. Two-way communication exists when the controller replies with your call sign, even if the reply is only "standby." Then you may enter. If the controller answers without using your call sign, such as "aircraft calling Manassas tower, standby," communication is not established and you may not enter. The controller may also tell you to remain outside the airspace.

If the radio fails, you have a plan. Rule 91.129(d)(2) lets a VFR pilot operate in Class D and land if the weather is at or above basic VFR minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained and a clearance to land is received. Set the transponder to 7600. Watch the tower for light gun signals. Acknowledge them by rocking your wings in the day or by blinking the landing or navigation lights at night.

Light gun signals for an aircraft in flight: steady green means cleared to land. Flashing green means return for landing. Steady red means give way and continue circling. Flashing red means the airport is unsafe, do not land. Alternating red and green means use extreme caution. On the ground: steady green cleared for takeoff, flashing green cleared for taxi, steady red stop, flashing red taxi clear of the runway, flashing white return to starting point.

Emergency transponder codes: 7700 for an emergency, 7600 for radio failure and 7500 for hijacking. Set the code only when it applies, and never pass through these codes by accident while changing the code.

Wake turbulence and runway safety

A wing that makes lift makes two spinning tubes of air at its tips. The vortices sink and move with the wind. Large, heavy, slow aircraft make the strongest vortices. They are strongest on a clean wing flying slowly near the ground, so the hazard is highest on takeoff, approach and landing.

Landing behind a larger aircraft on the same runway: stay at or above its flight path and land beyond its touchdown point. Landing behind a larger aircraft that is departing: land well before its rotation point. Taking off behind a larger aircraft: rotate before its rotation point, and stay above its climb path. After a larger aircraft makes a low approach or touch-and-go, wait at least 2 minutes before you take off or land. A light crosswind can keep the vortices on the runway.

Runway incursions are one of the most serious ground risks. Plan your taxi route before you move. Read the airport diagram. Keep the checklist and the flight bag items stowed during taxi. Never enter an active runway unless you are sure you are cleared and the path is clear. If you are not sure where you are, stop and ask.

Oxygen and breathing

Hypoxia is a shortage of oxygen reaching the body's tissues. At altitude the air holds the same percentage of oxygen but the pressure is lower, so each breath delivers less. The first effects often include a loss of night vision, even as low as 5,000 feet of cabin pressure altitude. Judgment, memory and coordination are impaired at 12,000 to 15,000 feet. Headache, drowsiness, dizziness and a false sense of well-being are typical. Above 10,000 feet the time of useful consciousness shortens fast. You cannot judge your own condition well, so the sense of feeling fine is a warning sign.

The correction is to descend to a lower altitude, or to use supplemental oxygen. Your sport pilot altitude limits keep you below the altitudes where hypoxia is severe, but some people notice effects early, especially smokers, people with anemia and people who have been drinking or taking certain medicines.

Hyperventilation is breathing faster and deeper than the body needs. It blows off carbon dioxide and causes lightheadedness, tingling in the fingers and toes, and numbness. Stress or fear often triggers it. The symptoms can look like hypoxia. The correction is to slow your breathing on purpose, talk aloud or breathe into a bag. If the symptoms get better, it was hyperventilation. If you have doubt about it, descend.

Carbon monoxide is a gas from engine exhaust that you cannot smell or see. It reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen. Headache, drowsiness and dizziness in flight, especially with cabin heat on, are warning signs. Shut off the heater, open the vents, use oxygen if you have it, and land. Have the exhaust system checked.

Ears, sinuses, balance and motion sickness

As you climb and descend, the pressure in your ears and sinuses must equalize. A cold or sinus infection can block this and cause severe pain. Do not fly with a cold or congestion. If your ears block in a descent, climb a little, clear them and descend more slowly.

Spatial disorientation is the loss of your sense of up. Your inner ear cannot sense small or steady changes in attitude. In cloud or at night without a clear horizon, your senses mislead you. Trust the flight instruments. Avoid flight in conditions without a visible horizon, which is also required by your certificate. Visual illusions at night, such as a sloping runway or a black hole approach, can trick you too.

Motion sickness comes from conflicting signals to your senses. Look outside at the horizon, open the vents, reduce the turbulence by changing altitude and tell your passenger to look out. A passenger who is ill can distract you. Land if needed.

Stress, fatigue, dehydration and night vision

Stress adds to the load on your attention. It narrows your focus and makes it hard to see the whole picture. Fatigue slows reactions and decisions and may cause you to skip checklists. Rest before you fly, and do not fly after a sleepless night. Dehydration causes fatigue and headache and can cut your performance. Drink water, especially on hot days.

At night your eyes need time to adapt. Full dark adaptation takes at least 30 minutes in total darkness, though you can reach a moderate level within about 20 minutes under dim red light. Bright lights ruin it. Use dim cockpit lighting, look slightly to one side of a dim object to see it and scan with small eye movements.

Scuba diving adds nitrogen to your blood. The AIM recommends a wait of at least 12 hours before flying to altitudes up to 8,000 feet after diving without decompression stops, and at least 24 hours after diving that needed decompression stops. For flight above 8,000 feet, wait at least 24 hours.

Alcohol, drugs and medicines

Alcohol dulls judgment, vision and coordination and makes hypoxia worse. Rule 91.17 sets a minimum of 8 hours after drinking, a limit of 0.04 alcohol concentration, and a ban on flying under the influence. Eight hours is the least. Hangover effects can last longer.

Many prescription and over-the-counter medicines make you drowsy or impair your thinking. This includes antihistamines, cold remedies and pain medicines. Ask your doctor or pharmacist about each new medicine. If you are not sure, do not fly. Rule 91.17(a)(3) bans flying while using a drug that affects your faculties in a way contrary to safety.

The illness or condition that needs the medicine matters as much as the medicine. If you are sick enough to need a drug, think about whether you should be flying at all.

Checklists and models for decisions

IMSAFE tests your own fitness before a flight: Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue and Emotion. If any answer worries you, think again about the flight.

PAVE helps you find hazards: the Pilot, the Aircraft, the enVironment and External pressures. The 3P model is Perceive, Process and Perform. First see the hazards. Then judge their effect. Then act to reduce the risk. CARE and TEAM extend the idea. Risk has two parts: how likely it is and how bad it would be.

The DECIDE model is Detect the problem, Estimate the need to react, Choose a course of action, Identify solutions, Do the necessary actions and Evaluate the effects. It is useful when something changes in flight.

Set personal minimums while you are on the ground and calm. Write them down: the lowest ceiling, the lowest visibility, the highest wind and crosswind, the longest flight and the lowest fuel reserve you will accept. Raise them when you are new or tired. Keep to them.

Hazardous attitudes

The FAA lists five hazardous attitudes. Anti-authority: "Don't tell me." The antidote is "Follow the rules. They are usually right." Impulsivity: "Do it quickly." The antidote is "Not so fast. Think first." Invulnerability: "It won't happen to me." The antidote is "It could happen to me." Macho: "I can do it." The antidote is "Taking chances is foolish." Resignation: "What's the use?" The antidote is "I'm not helpless. I can make a difference."

Recognize the thought, label it as hazardous and say the antidote to yourself. Pressure from a passenger, a schedule or a wish to look good often hides behind a hazardous attitude. You are the pilot in command, and you can always say no.

Fly first, then solve the problem

In every emergency the order is: fly the aircraft, then solve the problem, then communicate. Keep the aircraft under control and at a safe speed before you work on the cause.

The pilot in command is directly responsible for, and is the final authority over, the aircraft (91.3(a)). In an in-flight emergency that needs immediate action, you may deviate from any rule in part 91 as much as the emergency requires. If the FAA asks, you must send a written report of the deviation (91.3(b) and (c)).

Learn your emergency checklists before you need them. Memorize the first few steps. Read the rest from the checklist.

Engine failure

If the engine quits in cruise, lower the nose and establish the best glide speed from the flight manual. The practical test expects you to hold that speed within 10 knots. Choose a landing area, preferably into the wind, and plan your approach to it. While you glide, try the checklist items: fuel selector, fuel pump, mixture, carburetor heat, ignition switch and primer. Do not spend all your height on the checklist.

Tell someone. Call on the frequency in use, or on 121.5, say MAYDAY (three times if time permits), your position, your problem and your intentions. Set the transponder to 7700. Tighten your harness and brief your passenger.

If the engine quits soon after takeoff, push the nose down at once to keep flying speed. The safest choice is usually to land straight ahead, or with a gentle turn, on the best surface available. A turn back to the airport is the "impossible turn." It needs enough height, planning and practice, and can end in a stall or a hard landing. Decide on your plan on the ground, before every takeoff.

Plan for the landing. Fly a stabilized approach. Use flaps when you are sure of making the field. When the landing is assured, shut off the fuel and the electrical system as the flight manual directs. Keep the battery master on until you no longer need power for vital systems. Land as slowly as you can, under control.

Fires

Engine fire: unless the flight manual says otherwise, shut off the fuel first. Set the mixture to idle cutoff and the fuel selector valve to off. Leave the ignition on so the engine burns off the fuel left in the lines. Do not try to restart the engine if the fire goes out. Land as soon as possible.

Electrical fire: you will usually smell burning insulation. Check circuit breakers, instruments, avionics and lights for the faulty circuit. If you cannot find it, turn off the battery master and alternator or generator switches. Landing as soon as possible is the safest choice.

Cabin fire: it comes from smoking, electrical faults or the heating system. Put out the fire with an extinguisher if you have one, find and shut down the faulty system, then open the vents to clear smoke. If smoke gets worse when the vents open, close them. Descend and land as soon as possible.

Other problems

Door opens in flight: most doors do not stay wide open. Concentrate on flying the airplane. Do not release your seat belt to reach the door. Fly a normal pattern and land.

Radio failure: set the transponder to 7600. Near a tower, stay in VFR weather and watch for light gun signals. The airport lesson explains the rule in 91.129(d)(2). Away from a tower, try another radio or frequency, and land at a suitable airport.

Accidental flight into cloud: see the weather lesson. Keep the wings level, trust the instruments and ask for help.

Ballistic parachute: if the aircraft has one, learn the conditions for using it, the arming and disarming steps, and brief any passenger who may need to pull the handle if you cannot.

Asking for help

To get help, tell the ATC facility or any station you can reach. Say the nature of the trouble, your intentions and the help you need. A distress call starts with MAYDAY, preferably repeated three times. An urgency call starts with PAN-PAN, used the same way. MAYDAY has absolute priority and tells other stations to keep radio silence on that frequency.

The emergency transponder code is 7700. The radio failure code is 7600. The hijack code is 7500. Radar sites show these codes with an alarm.

An emergency locator transmitter (ELT) sends a signal after a crash. The 406 MHz type is digital and can carry your registration and position. Satellites no longer monitor the older 121.5 and 243.0 MHz types, so those depend on a nearby facility or an aircraft overhead hearing the signal. Test and register your ELT as the maker directs.

Reporting accidents and incidents

The operator of an aircraft must notify the nearest NTSB office immediately, by the fastest means available, after an aircraft accident or after certain serious incidents (49 CFR 830.5). The NTSB Response Operations Center numbers are 844-373-9922 and 202-314-6290.

An aircraft accident is an event between the time anyone boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and the time all persons have left it, in which someone suffers death or serious injury, or the aircraft receives substantial damage. A fatal injury is a death within 30 days. A serious injury includes a stay of more than 48 hours in hospital, most broken bones, severe bleeding or tissue damage, damage to an internal organ, and some burns.

Substantial damage is damage that harms the structural strength, performance or flight characteristics of the aircraft and normally needs major repair or replacement of the part. Bent cowling, small dents or holes in skin, and damage limited to landing gear, wheels, tires, flaps or wingtips are not substantial damage.

Serious incidents that need an immediate call include a flight control malfunction or failure, a crewmember unable to do normal duties because of injury or illness, an in-flight fire, a midair collision, damage to property other than the aircraft that is estimated to exceed $25,000, and release of all or part of a propeller blade (not caused by ground contact alone).

After an accident, you also file Board Form 6120 within 10 days. A report on an incident is filed only if the NTSB asks for it. Every crewmember attaches a statement about the facts, conditions and circumstances as soon as physically able.